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BharatSHRI
Bharat Shared Repository of Inscriptions
ARABIC & PERSIAN EPIGRAPHY THROUGH AGES

Inscription can be classified as monolingual, bilingual and trilingual and so on or as royal, official and private or religious and secular or as commemorative and donatives. Indian epigraphy of the medieval period covers mainly inscriptions for Arabic and Persian from Delhi Sultanate to later Mughal and British period.

Sultanate period’s inscriptions span by far the longest period of time from Shamsuddin Iltatmish, sultan of slave dynasty to Ibrahim lodi, sultans of Lodi, likewise among provincial kingdoms, from sultans of Malwa, to sultans of Gujarat, sultans of Bengal and Sarqi sultan of Jaunpur, Deccan kingdom such as Adil Shahi of Bijapur, Barid Shahi of Bidar, Qutub Shahi of Golconda, Nizam Shahi of Ahmadnagar, Imad Shahi of Berar were incorporated to the study of Indian epigraphy of medieval period, besides, Nawwab of Awadh, Nizam of Hyderabad, Nawwab of Murshidabad and sultans of Mysore, but to name a few.

Inscriptions present comprehensive picture of the past, in particular, local history of different village, town, cities and provenances of the province of imperial monarchy for which little references exist in the contemporary literary work. They also offer the ground information about the development of Language and Literature at the time of the imperial king when inscriptions were written. Epigraphs equally tell us about the evolution of sort of Arabic Persian script used at that time and space. Calligraphy is of the immense role in inscription which is instrumental in exhibiting the aesthetic contour of the edifices.

Calligraphy

Arabic and Persian inscriptions have in course of time been undergone the different variety of style of Islamic Calligraphy at the outset from the period of Delhi sultanate to later Mughal period. The Islamic Calligraphy witnessed the heyday at the time of Mughal Emperors, in particular at the hands of Mughal Emperor Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Islamic calligraphy on medieval monuments as well as on paper developed simultaneously in Indian subcontinent. A critical glance on its evolution here will show us how their application went hand in hand with each other.

The Origin of the Arabic Script

The history of evolution of signs from phonic expressions to the present developed form of script is a journey spread over nearly 4500 years. When ancient man began adopting symbols and signs for his phonic syllables, the earliest form of pictographs emerged.

Through gradual stages such as hieroglyphs, cuneiforms and Semitic alphabets, writing systems eventually evolved into distinct forms capable of representing consonantal sounds and enabling meaningful communication.

It was during the 3rd and 4th century A.D. that the Arabic script began to take a definitive shape. Like its Semitic counterparts, it was primarily consonantal in nature. Historically, the Arabic script is traced to the Nabataean script, which itself was derived from the Aramaic script. Of course, it is universally known that Arabic is written from right to left.

The Art of Calligraphy

“He, who taught the use of pen. Taught man, that he knew not.” (Quran, Chapter XCVI, verses 4 and 5).

These are the two of the five verses from the first revelation of Allah on Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). Plato says: “Writing is the geometry of soul.”

In his famous work ‘Ain-i-Akbari’ Abul Fadl writes: : “Pictures are much inferior to the written letters, Pictures are much inferior to the written letters.”

The writing achieved an unprecedented religious as well as cultural importance in Islam. As pictures, icons and figurative images were prohibited in Islamic tenets, the skills of calligraphers, scribes and graphic artists got manifestation in the form of the art of calligraphy which has a rainbow of seven well-known styles namely Kufi, Naskh, Thulth, Riqa, Diwan, Nastaliq & Tughra and various different varieties. In Arabia, calligraphy got such an important place in the cultural arena that nearly every quarter of public life was influenced by it.

The Styles: There are seven principle styles of Islamic calligraphy but there can be numerous off shoots and varieties of these styles. There are regional variations also.

Arabic-Persian Calligraphy in India

After the advent of Islam this art of calligraphy has gone a long way from west Asian & Central Asian countries to Indian sub-continent, to achieve the status of such an art that without its mention the cultural history of medieval India will be considered as incomplete. Indo-Islamic architecture, royal stationary, royal orders (farmāns), coins, seals, wall hangings (waslīs), fabrics, books (in manuscript form) etc., were evidently influenced by this art.

When Muslim rule was established in India in 12th century A.D., the building activities, along with socio-cultural institutions started taking its origin and shape on Indian soil and thus started a process of innovation and blending experiments in respect of art of calligraphy. And thus India of the period of Muslim rule could claim possession of some of the marvels of calligraphy in the world.

As the Muslim rulers crossed the boundary to try their destiny in foreign land, with them the art and culture of their homeland also advanced. Islamic calligraphy was the most vibrant attribute brought to India. After the Muslim rule came into existence in India in 12th century A.D., building activities started shaping on Indian soil, beginning a process of innovation and blending experiments in the art of calligraphy.

Kufi & Indian Kufic

Kufi:

In the 7th century, after the advent of Islam, Kufa, the then capital of a province, became important centre of art and Arabic literature. The linguists, scholars, poets and calligraphers started efforts for the development of the Arabic script. After meticulous experiments they devised a specific script with short vertical strokes, extended horizontal lines, square and some-what angular alphabet to be called Khat-e-Kufi named after its place of origin.

This was the first ever Arabic script. In the coming years innovations and ornamentation resulted into plaited and foliated varieties of Kufic. Inscription in the Dome of Rock at Jerusalem and letters of Prophet Muhammad, calligraphed by Hadrat Ali the IV Caliph, are also written in Kufic only. The early copies of holy Quran executed on parchment or papyrus, which we inherited and still preserved at various museums and private collections, are written in Kufi only which was also called Mashq.

Indian Kufic:

After the establishment of first Muslim Sultanate in India at the end of 12th century, the tradition of adorning monuments with large scale calligraphy was set. We get good specimen of Kufic on monuments of Sultanate period, which were generally comprised Bismillah, Quranic verses, and names of Allah etc.

By the end of 14th century this style disappeared from Indian monuments. But in the manuscripts, the titles of the books & headings of the chapters were being calligraphed in Kufi style, even upto 16th -17th century A.D. Shamsuddin Iltatmish, real founder of Muslim rule in India, made Delhi his capital and adorned monuments with calligraphy. The Façade of Quwwatul Islam mosque near Qutb Minar and Façade of Adhai-din-ka-Jhonpda mosque (Ajmer) are good examples of plaited Kufic style.

Naskh & Indian Naskh

Naskh:

Naskh style, as its name suggests, was script for copying Quran, books etc. It was a developed form of Kufic with cursive characters. Letters were given more curves and roundness with equal height and width with a consistency. The easiness involved in its execution made it popular in a short time and this style became the multipurpose script for epigraphs, coins, copying holy Quran and books. Even now world over the holy Quran is being printed in Naskh script only.

Indian Naskh:

Another popular style was flourishing side by side, was Naskh that totally replaced Kufic and had a sway over the inscriptions till 16th century. Naskh was the most popular style for executing inscriptions for the quality of its consistency and facility of easy writing and reading. Most of the inscriptions of the period of Turk Sultans, Khaljis, Tughluqs, Lodis and early Mughals are executed in this style. All pre-Mughal coins carry legends in Naskh style only. Manuscripts on Islamic sciences in the pre-Mughal period and their farmans & documents used to be written in Naskh style only. Naskh gradually replaced Kufi over the inscriptions till 16th century. Naskh was the most popular style for executing inscriptions for the quality of its consistency and facility of easy writing and reading. Most of the inscriptions of the period of Turk Sultans, Khaljis, Tughluqs, Lodis and early Mughals are executed in this style.

Thulth & Indian Thulth

Thulth:

Then entered the Thulth, the most elegant and decorative form of Arabic script. Thulth in Arabic means ‘one-third’ which in terms of geometric interpretations is defined as the rule of ratio between vertical and lateral strokes. As per its principles the rounded letters (dairas or circles) were 1/3 of vertical alif. The measurements were to be made with the unit of rhombic dot i.e. qat (width of the pen’s tip)

The accommodative and overlapping quality of Thulth made it popular for aesthetic writings, such as book titles, Quran first pages, headings, inscriptional bands on monuments, medallions, and Kiswah (the golden band on the holy Kaba cover in Mecca).

Indian Thulth:

Thulth was though introduced in India right from the 14th century but it never ousted Naskh completely. Area of both the styles was different. Thulth was more dignified and much more artistic. It had a great ornamental value for decorational bands on central mihrabs of mosques, medallions etc. Qutb Shahi and Mughal calligraphers used this style generously. Jami Masjid Golconda, Taj Mahal, Agra, among others, are the best example of this styles. The greatest quality of this style is its visual value which adds elegance and beauty to the monument on which it appears. In the manuscripts the headings were to be written consistently in Thulth only. Thulth came to be used for decorating bands on central mihrabs of mosques, medallions etc. Thulth was though introduced in India right from the 14th century but it never replaced Naskh completely. Jami Masjid Golconda, Taj Mahal, Agra, among others, is the best example of this style.

Bengal & Bahar Styles

Bengal Style:

The calligraphers from the court of Bengal Sultans were so innovative that they gave a new dimension to Thulth style and created their own variety which very well found in the epigraphs of Bengal. The vertical strokes in this variety are arranged in such a way that they resemble the stems of coconut trees, a regional factor. The art historians have designated it as ‘Bow and Arrow’ style or moving swans/boats against a backdrop of coconut trees on the coast

Bahar Style:

India can very well boast of contributing a new style of calligraphy to the world of Islamic arts .Infact calligraphers in India were equally talented to add dimensions to the already well developed art of calligraphy .In the 14th century the world of graphic art saw a new style of calligraphy in the form of Bahar style. This purely indigenous style was a bold variety in which round strokes left without sharp ending. This characteristic added new attractiveness to it. We get very few epigraphs in this style but copies of Holy Quran were generously calligraphed in it. Calligraphers in India were equally talented to add dimensions to the already well developed art of calligraphy. In the 14th century the world of graphic art saw a new style of calligraphy in the form of Bahar style. This purely indigenous style was a bold variety in which round strokes left without sharp ending

Nastaliq Style & Indian Nastaliq

Nastaliq: When, after the conquest, Islamic arts reached Iran, an another phase of variation in the prevailing scripts took place and after masterfully blending of Naskh and Taliq (here the latter literary means ‘hanged’) a new style Nastaliq was invented in the 15th century which was more delicate and fine in its terminal strokes and was proportionately thick and regular-circular for rounded parts of letters. It was much suited to Iranian temperaments of artistic pursuits and subtleties of Persian poetry. Khwaja Mir Ali Tabrizi, the master calligrapher is considered as the founder of this style in 15th century who after great efforts fixed specific rules for this style. Ever since Nastaliq became the national script of Iran and even now Persian and Urdu languages are written in this style only.

Note: This side column can highlight important points, dates, or founder names.

Visual Tip: The flowing column layout mimics a manuscript page, making the long text more readable and elegant.

Indian Nastaliq: By the start of the 16th century, Indian monuments saw a very delicate cursive style called Nastaliq. Leaving one or two examples, Nastaliq was introduced and popularized by Great Mughals. Mughals preferred Nastaliq for writing, except Quranic verses. Farmans, epigraphs, coins, seals, potteries, arms, manuscripts, etc. were inscribed in Nastaliq. Inscriptions on the Black throne of Agra Fort, Epitaphs of Khusrau Bagh, Allahabad (Jahangir’s period) Sarai Azam Khan, Ahmedabad (Shah Jahan’s period) and Safdar Jung’s tomb (later Mughal’s period) are the excellent specimen of Nastaliq style. The start of the 16th century saw a very delicate cursive style called Nastaliq. Leaving one or two examples, Nastaliq was introduced and popularized by Great Mughals. Mughals preferred Nastaliq for writing any thing, except Quranic verses. The Farmans, epigraphs, coins, seals, potteries, arms, books etc. were inscribed in Nastaliq. Inscriptions on the Black Throne of Agra Fort, epitaphs of Khusrau Bagh, Allahabad (Jahangir’s period) Sarai Azam Khan, Ahmedabad (Shah Jahan’s period) and Safdar Jung’s tomb (later Mughal’s period) are the excellent specimen of Nastaliq style. The well-laid out coins, royal insignia and seals are the best example of masterful use of Nastaliq style by Mughal rulers. There farmans, royal history chronicles and other books were written in this style only.

Shikasta

Shikasta cannot be designated as a separate style but it is a corrupt form of Nastaliq introduced by one Murtada Quli of Herat in early 17th century. This form was mostly used for informal letter writing, maintaining official diaries etc. The dimn (i.e. endorsement at the back of farmans) is written Shikasta, literary meaning broken. When Nastaliq is written in a running hand without much precision it is called Shikasta. For the sake of fast and informal writing, strokes were cut short and left broken or incomplete.

Tughra

Tughra is a form of Calligraphy in which the names of Allah, Quranic verses, king’s name, emblem of government are written in bird or animal form or beautiful geometric arrangement. The Ottoman Sultans of Turkey used this form to write their names and titles on the royal orders, documents, stationery etc. In India also this tradition was adopted by nearly all Muslim rulers.

Tughra is not a separate style as such. Kufic, Naskh, Thulth, Nastaliq etc. can be arranged in geometric designs, bird/zoomorphic or floral forms to be called Tughra. It is generally found in medallions, arms, flags, guns, coins, seals and farmans. Sometimes a mirror effect is also created with the true and retrograde image written face-to-face to be called Tughra-i-Makus. The waslis (wall hangings) are also executed in Tughra style.

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